immediate causes of the civil war

The main thrust of the argument was that since the U.S. Constitution, being a contract, had been violated by some parties (the Northern abolitionist states), the other parties (the Southern slave-holding states) were no longer bound by it. [27] Although these groups have their own homelands, by the 1960s, the people were dispersed across Nigeria, with all three ethnic groups represented substantially in major cities. This already proves to realize slavery as being the primary cause of the American Civil war. From 22 May to 8 July 1969 von Rosen's small force attacked Nigerian military airfields in Port Harcourt, Enugu, Benin City and Ughelli, destroying or damaging a number of Nigerian Air Force jets used to attack relief flights, including a few MiG-17's and three of Nigeria's six Ilyushin Il-28 bombers that were used to bomb Biafran villages and farms on a daily basis. Both the TPLF and federal government forces have been accused by the United Nations of human rights violations, including systematic ethnically based rape and massacres. [197] More common was the claim that the arms-carrying aircraft would closely shadow aid aircraft, making it more difficult to distinguish between aid aircraft and military supply aircraft. The 169 delegates convened at South Carolina Institute Hall in Charleston on December 20. The primary focus of the declaration is the perceived violation of the Constitution by Northern states in not extraditing escaped slaves (as the U.S. Constitution required in Article IV, Section 2) and actively working to abolish slavery (which South Carolinian secessionists saw as Constitutionally guaranteed and protected). [citation needed], The Biafrans responded with an offensive of their own. Ehud Avriel, ambassador to Ghana and a close confidant of both Prime Minister David Ben Gurion and Foreign Minister Golda Meir, cautioned that were Israel to fail to establish ties with Nigeria, 'all of our work in West Africa will have come to naught'.". Griffin, "French military policy in the Nigerian Civil War" (2015), p. 119. It was only later, when I was living within Zaria city (at Babban Dodo), that I encountered the anger at the way Igbo traders (and journalists) were mocking their Hausa fellow traders in Zarias Sabon Gari over the death of their father, and were pushing aside various motorpark workers elsewhere, telling the Hausa that the rules had now all changed and it was the Hausa who were now the underlings in market or motorpark. [67] The Nigerian Army did not conduct field training, and notably lacked heavy weapons. In Calabar, some 2000 Efiks were also killed by Federal troops. ", Graham-Douglas, Ojukwu's Rebellion, p. 17. [172][173] The nations of sub-Saharan Africa tended to support the Arabs in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute by voting for resolutions sponsored by Arab states at the United Nations. [72] Of the seven officers killed, four were northerners, two were from the southeast and one was from the Midwest. [211] Besides portraying the war as a Christian-Muslim conflict, Markpress accused the Federal government of waging genocide against the Igbos, a campaign that was extremely effective as pictures of starving Igbos won the sympathy of the world. Copyright 20102023, The Conversation, U.S. and the international community over its reaction, Gloria Emeagwali, professor of African history at Central Connecticut State University, Tigray Peoples Liberation Front and Ethiopian government forces, accused by the United Nations of human rights violations, risk of starvation for hundreds of thousands of people, enormous control over the countrys economy and land. Its facilities had been damaged and needed repair. [132]Nigeria had a navy of only 6 vessels, the largest of which was a frigate; an air force of 76 planes, none of which were fighters or bombers; and an army of 7,000 men with no tanks and a shortage of officers with command experience. Charles Pinckney, a vocal critic of the Articles of Confederation and contributor to the US Constitution, served in the House of Representatives from 1819-21. [93] Its operations were all located offshore of the federally controlled Mid-Western territory; therefore it continued to pay royalties to the federal government and its operations were mostly undisrupted. As a condition for accepting independence, they demanded that the country continue to be divided into three regions with the North having a clear majority. [65] At 516,000 barrels per day, Nigeria had become the tenth-biggest oil exporter in the world. "Thus northern privilege and political hegemony became the dual. The Abiy administration promised a new level of transparency, freed thousands of prisoners and brokered peace with neighboring Eritrea leading to his winning the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize. From different starting points, and with differing goals, NGOs in both states assumed the mantel of organised reactions and re-imaginings of their countries' roles for the postcolonial era. Conflicts over government control may involve insurgents originating from within the centre or state apparatus, as in military coups, or challengers from outside the political establishment. [221] Novelist Chinua Achebe became a committed propagandist for Biafra, and one of its leading international advocates. 174175. "The oil revenue issue, however, came to a head when Gowon, on 27 May 1967, divided the country into twelve states. [168], The Eastern Region began seeking assistance from Israel in September 1966. More from Wes about the causes of the Civil War. Only one was a Igbo. [197], The American Community to Keep Biafra Alive stood apart from other organisations by quickly creating a broad strategy for pressuring the American government into taking a more active role in facilitating relief. [156] Maurice Robert, head of Service de Documentation Extrieure et de Contre-Espionnage (SDECE, the French foreign intelligence service) African operations, wrote in 2004 that his agency supplied the press with details about the war and told them to use the word "genocide" in their reporting. In a national broadcast, he said that the decision was based on the principle that "justice must at all times be tempered with mercy. [107] The war began on the early hours of 6 July 1967 when Nigerian Federal troops advanced in two columns into Biafra. "In the struggle over the national wealth, control depended on who dominated the government at the centre. Apart from direct arms supplies, it provided military intelligence to the Nigerian government and may have helped it to access sophisticated arms and mercenaries through third parties. By Lincolns inauguration in March, 1861 seven states from the Deep South had already left the Union. The literature on nationalist conflicts emphasized how both relatively poorer and wealthier groups are likely to rebel against the centre if they believe that they can do better under independence. It was the culmination of a series of confrontations concerning the institution of slavery and includes the Missouri Compromise, Nat Turner's Rebellion, "The Muse of History and the Literature of the Nigeria-Biafra War." Only a few days earlier, Ojukwu fled into exile by plane to the Ivory Coast, leaving his deputy Philip Effiong to handle the details of the surrender to General Yakubu Gowon of the Federal Army on 13 January 1970. The pogroms in the north in 1966 were indiscriminately directed against people from Eastern Nigeria. [90] When Shell-BP acquiesced to this request at the end of June, the Federal Government extended its blockade to include oil. [27], The Yoruba political system in the southwest, like that of the Hausa-Fulani, also consisted of a series of monarchs, the Oba. [78], Ironsi fatally did not bring the failed plotters to trial as required by then-military law and as advised by most northern and western officers, rather, coup plotters were maintained in the military on full pay, and some were even promoted while awaiting trial. "The problem was that the oil had to be shipped through Bonny, which at the time was not safe. [258], On 29 May 2000, The Guardian reported that President Olusegun Obasanjo commuted to retirement the dismissal of all military persons who fought for the breakaway state of Biafra during the Nigerian civil war. The election of 1860 proved to be the breaking point for an already unstable nation. The Confederacy attacked the fort because the ships could arrive, and the Union surrendered. Heerten & Moses, "The NigeriaBiafra War" (2014), p. 177. Lincoln asked the Union states to provide 75,000 militiamen. He introduced the Count to a Canadian method of dropping bagged supplies to remote areas in Canada without losing the contents. Most notable of the mercenaries was Swedish Count Carl Gustav von Rosen who led air attacks with five Malm MFI-9 MiniCOIN small piston-engined aircraft, armed with rocket pods and machine guns. The longer term causes were the division of Africa by Perhaps more importantly, the British government calculated that supporting Nigeria was its safest option if it were to preserve its oil interests in the country, largely because the Cold War and the rivalry among some Western European states made it likely that other foreign powers would wade into the conflict. Thus, the ultimate causation was nature, either human or human-created. Ojukwu relocated his government without difficulty to Umuahia, a city positioned deep within traditional Igbo territory. Slavery and states' rights were protected in their Confederate Constitution. Information spread especially through religious networks, beginning with alerts from missionaries. Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas offered similar declarations when they seceded, following South Carolina's example. [174], President Gamal Abdel Nasser dispatched pilots of the Egyptian Air Force to fight for Nigeria in August 1967, flying the recently arrived MiG-17s. Biafran propagandists had the dual task of appealing to international public opinion, and maintaining morale and nationalist spirit domestically.

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[126] Out of a fear of a coup, Ojukwu created several units such as the S Brigade commanded by himself and the 4th Commando Brigade commanded by the German mercenary Rolf Steiner that existed outside of the regular chain of command. ", Levey, "Israel, Nigeria and the Biafra civil war" (2014), pp. He, however, appointed Colonel Hassan Katsina, son of Katsina emir Usman Nagogo, to govern the Northern Region, indicating some willingness to maintain cooperation with this bloc. [155] In July the government redoubled its efforts to involve the public in a humanitarian approach to the conflict. "Women and the Nigeria-Biafra war." Phillips, Charles, & Alan Axelrod (2005). The specific issue stated was the refusal of some states to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act and clauses in the U.S. Constitution protecting slavery and the federal government's perceived role in attempting to abolish slavery. The declaration was seen as analogous to the U.S. "[230], The war cost the Igbos a great deal in terms of lives, money and infrastructure. [50][51], NorthernSouthern tension manifested firstly in the 1945 Jos Riot in which 300 Igbo people died[16] and again on 1 May 1953, as fighting in the Northern city of Kano. By the 1960s, Igbo political culture was more unified and the region relatively prosperous, with tradesmen and literate elites active not just in the traditionally Igbo east, but throughout Nigeria. On Dec. 24, 1860, its government issued a Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union. [203][citation needed], After entering the country, the volunteers, in addition to Biafran health workers and hospitals, were subjected to attacks by the Nigerian army, and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces. Approximately 60% of the convention, or 104 members, owned as many as 20 enslaved people or more. It was harder but much more economically viable to take the mountain route! [115], The command was divided into two brigades with three battalions each. [102], The UK, which still maintained the highest level of influence over Nigeria's highly valued oil industry through Shell-BP,[103] and the Soviet Union supported the Nigerian government, especially by military supplies. On 17 October 1967 Nigerians invaded Calabar led by the "Black Scorpion", Benjamin Adekunle, while the Biafrans were led by Col. Ogbu Ogi, who was responsible for controlling the area between Calabar and Opobo, and Lynn Garrison, a foreign mercenary. The news of this payment reached the Federal government, which immediately extended the shipping embargo to oil tankers. WebSlavery was a cause of the Civil War for two reasons. German mercenary Rolf Steiner was placed in charge of the 4th Commando Brigade of the Biafran Armed Forces and commanded 3,000 men.

Firstly, the AG favoured a loose confederacy of regions in the emergent Nigerian nation whereby each region would be in total control of its own distinct territory. But there's nobody to touch these people. [142][147] To some extent, also, France repeated its earlier policy from the Congo Crisis, when it supported the secession of the southern mining province Katanga.

Discuss the following phrases: "too far out", "too cold", "his heart gave way", "not waving but drowning". The weapons would not be sent directly to Ojukwu, but would go through Houphout-Boigny, so that it looked like France was replenishing the Ivory Coast's stocks as stipulated in the normal bilateral military assistance agreements. This "Coup of the Five Majors" has been described in some quarters as Nigeria's only revolutionary coup. [256] Laws were passed mandating that political parties could not be ethnically or tribally based; however, it has been hard to make this work in practice. A blockade was imposed as a deliberate policy during the ensuing stalemate which led to the mass starvation of Biafran civilians. It did not escape the notice of worldwide Christian organisations that the Biafrans were Christian and the northern Nigerians controlling the federal government were Muslim. There was widespread suspicion that the Igbo coup plotters had tipped him and other Igbo leaders off regarding the pending coup. The period after the war in which attempts were made to solve the political, social, and economic problems arising from the readmission to the Union of the former Confederate states is known as, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) and Antietam, Conscription and the New York City draft riot, Shermans Georgia campaigns and total war, The cost and significance of the Civil War, Causes and Effects of the American Civil War. In no sense could it have been said that the slaves in South Carolina were governed by powers derived from their consent. This sparked a retaliatory strike by government forces and a declaration of a state of emergency by Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed. WebStudents can explore Westward Expansion from 1790 to 1850 using an interactive map, teachers can create a document-based question for students to analyze dozens of Civil The negative consequences of civil war are not limited to the countries that experience them: neighbouring countries also suffer negative economic impacts and may be more prone to violence themselves. [69] As men from the southeast and southwest were generally much better educated than men from the north, they were much more likely to be promoted to officers in the newly founded Nigerian Army, which provoked further resentment from the northerners. Webcombat leadership, well-matured in the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) period, and given a coordinated fighting plan prepared by the Soviet 25, 1950, which became the [44] Intellectuals began to agitate for greater rights and independence. Join the list today.].

105106. West Africa. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The coup, despite its failures, was widely seen as primarily benefiting the Igbo peoples, as the plotters received no repercussions for their actions and no significant Igbo political leaders were affected. Londres: Afrimedia International, 1969, p. 1565. Eventually, they did win wage increases. In the north, the colonial government found it convenient to rule indirectly through the emirs, thus perpetuating rather than changing the indigenous authoritarian political system. Their intention was to dismantle the Northern-dominated power structure but their efforts to take power were unsuccessful. Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe, "The Achebean Restoration". It may be almost too late to avert an all-out civil war in Ethiopia. Civil wars are thus distinguished from interstate conflicts (in which states fight other states), violent conflicts or riots not involving states (sometimes labeled intercommunal conflicts), and state repression against individuals who cannot be considered an organized or cohesive group, including genocides, and similar violence by non-state actors, such as terrorism or violent crime. The convention resolved to print 15,000 copies of these three documents and distribute them to various parties.[8]. in, Ojaruega, Enajite E. "Beyond Victimhood: Female Agency in Nigerian Civil War Novels. Meanwhile, there are some actions that the main protagonists can take to bring down tensions. Jaffa states that South Carolina omitted references to human equality and consent of the governed, as due to their racist and pro-slavery views, secessionist South Carolinians did not believe in those ideals: [G]overnments are legitimate only insofar as their "just powers" are derived "from the consent of the governed." The definition of civil war clearly encompasses many different forms of conflict. As prime minister, Abiy began limiting the economic dominance of the TPLF and instituting more centralized federal policies. [190] Belgian mercenary Marc Goosens, who was killed by defensive Nigerian forces in a suicide mission during Operation Hiroshima, was reportedly motivated by his hatred of the British government (which supported Nigeria during the war). Many experts regarded the outbreak of new civil conflicts immediately following the Cold War as evidence that the world would be more turbulent and violent after a long period of stability based on the strategy of nuclear deterrence adopted by the United States and the Soviet Union. It followed the brief Ordinance of Secession that had been issued on December 20. The general public in Israel, in the wake of that intense press coverage, expressed revulsion at the world's feckless response and the helplessness of the Biafran victims, which, for Israelis, recalled their own catastrophe.". How does this situation apply to human life in general? It had an English literacy rate of 2%, as compared to 19.2% in the east (literacy in Ajami (local languages in Arabic script), learned in connection with religious education, was much higher). [68], Using the "martial races" theory first developed under the Raj in 19th-century India, the colonial government had decided that peoples from northern Nigeria such as the Hausa, Kiv, and Kanuri were the hard "martial races" whose recruitment was encouraged while the peoples from southern Nigeria such as the Igbos and the Yoruba were viewed as too soft to make for good soldiers and hence their recruitment was discouraged. The charities Oxfam and Save the Children Fund were soon deployed, with large sums of money at their disposal. [198], One of the characters assisting Count Carl Gustav von Rosen was Lynn Garrison, an ex-RCAF fighter pilot. WebMany maintain that the primary cause of the war was the Southern states desire to preserve the institution of slavery. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. O'Sullivan, "Humanitarian Encounters" (2014), pp. That Declaration does say that it is the right of the people to abolish any form of government that becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established. WebWar of 1812, (June 18, 1812February 17, 1815), conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations of U.S. maritime rights. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, and anti-Igbo pogroms in Northern Nigeria. [88][90] Biafra quickly moved to collect oil royalties from oil companies doing business within its borders. The plight of the starving Biafrans became a cause clbre in foreign countries, enabling a significant rise in the funding and prominence of international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Biafra proved unable to compete on this economic level. [40] By 1966, the traditional ethnic and religious differences between northerners and the Igbo were exacerbated by new differences in education and economic class. [206][207], Media and public relations played a central role in the war, due to their influence on morale at home and the dynamics of international involvement. Both sides relied heavily on external support. Therefore, it placed a high priority on maintenance of oil extraction and refining operations. [237], Ethnic minorities (Ibibio, Ijaw, Ikwerre, Ogoni and others) made up approximately 40% of the Biafran population in 1966. This agreement has, in the 1980s, been modified to further favour the Federal government. Levey, "Israel, Nigeria and the Biafra civil war" (2014), p. 274. The Northern economy, on the other hand, relied more on manufacturing. 175176. Prior to the civil war, the main source of dietary protein was dried fish imported from Norway, which was supplemented by local hogs, chicken and eggs. The diplomatic mission follows criticism of the U.S. and the international community over its reaction to a conflict that has seen numerous accusations of war crimes. It prompted the creation of new agencies, like Africa Concern, and thrust existing ones, like Oxfam, into a spotlight they have left only rarely since. [28], The semi-feudal and Muslim Hausa-Fulani in the north were traditionally ruled by a conservative Islamic hierarchy consisting of emirs who in turn owed their ultimate allegiance to the Sultan of Sokoto, whom they regarded as the source of all political power and religious authority. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. For example, insurgencies may be both ethnic and ideologically based, and the insurgents aims can shift over time from secession for a limited territory to controlling the entire state. Also murdered was Bello's wife and officers of Northern extraction. One hundred and fifty-three of the 169 delegates held slaves in 1860. Ojukwu suggested on 10 August 1967, that Biafra introduce compulsory French classes in secondary, technical and teacher training schools, in order to "benefit from the rich culture of the French-speaking world". Resentment of politicians ran high and many campaigners feared for their safety while touring the country. Heerten & Moses, "The NigeriaBiafra War" (2014), p. 177. Ram Nirgad became Israeli ambassador to Nigeria in January. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Behind the scenes on our biggest shows, the stories you won't see on TV & highlights from Welsh history, arts and music. ", O'Sullivan, "Humanitarian Encounters" (2014), p. 299. Furthermore, war can have a substantial indirect impact on human welfare beyond the direct loss of life. ", Uche, "Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War" (2008), p. 132. [20] In mid-1968, images of malnourished and starving Biafran children saturated the mass media of Western countries. These doctors, led by Kouchner, concluded that a new aid organisation was needed that would ignore political / religious boundaries and prioritise the welfare of victims. Any further instability is likely to embolden terrorist organizations such as Al-Shabab, which could spread westward into Ethiopia and even Sudan from its base in Somalia. ", Uche, "Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War" (2008), pp.

Apart from Ifeajuna who fled the country after the collapse of their coup, the other two January Majors, and the rest of the military officers involved in the revolt, later surrendered to the loyalist High Command and were subsequently detained as a federal investigation of the event began. The U.S. also saw value in its alliance with Lagos, and sought to protect $800million (in the assessment of the State Department) worth of private investment.[178]. "Some six thousand Rivers people were sent to different refugee camps in the Igbo hinterland.". [119], Enugu became the hub of secession and rebellion, and the Nigerian government believed that once Enugu was captured, the drive for secession would end. As for the role of the U.S., the visit to the region by Secretary of State Blinken is long overdue. Christian missionaries were excluded from the north, and the area thus remained virtually closed to European cultural influence. Armed challenges to state authority are as old as states themselves. [125] Furthermore, Ojukwu needed scapegoats for Biafra's defeats and death was the usual punishment for a Biafran officers who lost a battle. The South Carolina General Assembly called for a convention to consider secession following news of Lincoln's victory. [142] However, France did not recognise Biafra diplomatically. The fighting has been particularly intense. [195] Only German-born Rolf Steiner, a lieutenant colonel with the 4th Commandos, and Major Taffy Williams, a Welshman, would remain for the duration. "[259], Biafra was more or less wiped off the map until its resurrection by the contemporary Movement for the Actualisation of the Sovereign State of Biafra. Before, during and after the slaughter, Col. Gowon could be heard over the radio issuing 'guarantees of safety' to all Easterners, all citizens of Nigeria, but the intent of the soldiers, the only power that counts in Nigeria now or then, was painfully clear. He showed how one sack of food could be placed inside a larger sack before the supply drop. "[135], Shell-BP took this advice. After the Federal victory at Bonny, Wilson summoned David Hunt, the British high commissioner to Nigeria, for a meeting at 10 Downing Street in early August 1967 for his assessment of the situation. [143] Through Pierre Laureys, France had apparently provided two B-26s, Alouette helicopters, and pilots. The completion in 1969 of a new terminal at Forados brought production up from 142,000 barrels/day in 1958 to 540,000 barrels/day in 1969. [248] Outside of the Biafra, atrocities were recorded against the residents of Asaba in present-day Delta State by both sides of the conflict. instituting more centralized federal policies. Stay updated with the latest posts from the blog, Adam Walton playlist and show info: Saturday 3 March 2012. "From 1967 to 1970, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Poland sold Nigeria twelve L-29 Delfin training aircraft, forty-seven MiG-15 and MiG-17 fighter jets, and five Ilyushin-28 bombers, two of which Egypt transferred to Lagos. Despite the prospects for Eastern Region oil, the civil war made the source unreliable. Updates? "The Biafran humanitarian crisis holds a critical place in the history of non-government organisations (NGOs). Ojaide, Tanure, and Enajite Eseoghene Ojaruega, eds. As with many other authoritarian religious and political systems, leadership positions were given to persons willing to be subservient and loyal to superiors. The 169 delegates were primarily wealthy, middle-aged, slaveholding, native-born planters and lawyers. by Dr. Kimberly Kutz Elliott [129] Oil production and export continued, but at a lower level. The Army was repeatedly deployed to Tiv Division, killing hundreds and arresting thousands of Tiv people agitating for self-determination. Uche, "Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War" (2008), pp.

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